John F. Kennedy – the Space Exploration

James Moyer Mr. Sims U. S History Period 3 16 May 2012 John F. Kennedy – The Space Exploration I. Introduction A. Background Information All honor and respect lies within John F. Kennedy; his famous speech â€Å"We choose to go to the Moon†, was the reason why Space Exploration reached its peak on July 21st in the year 1969, Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin were the first and only people, the first and only Americans to step on the moon.It took eight-years, a month, and two days to complete what President Kennedy dreamed for our country, our people. Without his actions, his famous words, his heart-felt, prosperous speeches, we may have not accomplished the impossible, which we struggle to achieve, and prolong for it to happen again; to set foot on the moon. John Fitzgerald Kennedy was born on May 29, 1917, in Brookline, Massachusetts. He was the second born out of nine siblings into a multi-millionaire family whose father is Joseph P.Kennedy. He was a very educated man no t only this; he was a war hero during World War II. When he would return to civilization, he would go into the newspapers business, and be a successful writer; he would choose to be politically active just like his father and Mr. Kennedy would later become a candidate for the House of Representatives. From here on was the beginning and legacy of the famous John F. Kennedy. 1. The Dream How did one man create such a big difference?Look at the Presidents before Kennedy, the first President, George Washington, it was because of his actions and mindset that we out witted the British and became the independent country; President Lincoln who helped bring slavery to end, who brought the Confederacy and the States together; President Teddy Roosevelt who initiated the Meat Inspection Act and the Pure Food and Drug Act, which would prove very beneficial to the economy and its people. Now there are a ew other fine Presidents such as these listed few, but Kennedy is the first and only President to reach the impossible, to do the impossible, to even think about the impossible, have America walk on the moon. All due to his will to reach far beyond the sky and enter space itself to come across and walk upon the moon. B. Why it Matters NASA, (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) is responsible for the Space Program and Kennedy was the one responsible for Space Exploration. Apollo 11 was the manned spaceship which landed on the moon, to achieve what Mr.Kennedy wanted to see and experience himself; to see his dreams come true. Unfortunately his untimely death singled-handedly shocked the people; his assassination would spark the will for Space Exploration to accomplish his dream of landing on the moon. II. Body Paragraphs a. How It All Began John Fitzgerald Kennedy, born May 29, 1917, at 83 Beals Street in the middle-class suburb of Brookline, Massachusetts, was the second of nine children (Baughman et. Al). The Kennedy bunch ended up moving to Bronxville, just outsid e of New York City.They would reside here for Kennedy’s schooling throughout the years until 1941 where they would dismantle and search for a new home. Kennedy had a secret illness which was life threatening: chronic stomach disorders, back problems, frequent and severe allergic reactions, and the undiagnosed, until 1947, effects of Addison's disease. â€Å"Addison’s disease is a failure of the adrenal glands, which sapped his energy, weakened his immune system, and left him vulnerable to infections and dangerously high fevers† (Baughman et. Al). Kennedy’s father wouldn’t let his health affect the publicity so he covered it up with Kennedy’s â€Å"war injuries. 1. His Career In 1941, instead of continuing with his works, John F. Kennedy followed his brother Joseph Jr. into battle alongside the U. S Navy during World War II. Kennedy was assigned to duties of Naval Intelligence in Washington. On August 2nd, 1943, the PT-109, a boat under his command, was rammed and suck by a Japanese destroyer, Amagiri. Although his seamanship and commands were questionable at the time, he was still a courageous man; he proved this by saving his injured crew or being able to sustain them behind enemy lines to wait for rescue.Awarded a few medals such as the Navy and Marine Corps Medal and the Purple Heart, also being considered a hero in the eyes of New York Times, he would later be discharged for medical reasoning and thrown into politics right away by his father, due to his eldest sons death, Joseph Jr. now being able to fulfill his father’s dream; to become the first Irish-Catholic President of the United States. 2. Political Life In 1946 John Kennedy won election to the U. S. Congress from Massachusetts' 11th District, representing parts of Boston and Cambridge.His father spent exorbitant sums on the campaign and involved the entire Kennedy family except his sister Rosemary who was ‘retarded’. In 1952, at his fat her's urging, Kennedy challenged Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. for the U. S. Senate from Massachusetts. Most observers gave Kennedy little chance. The 1952 campaign featured sophisticated, often unique methods of reaching the voters. Among the first to make the best use of television for advertising and fundraising, Kennedy enrolled in a special CBS-TV seminar to promote on how to use TV effectively.His naturally poised and unrestrained manner fitted the new scene conditionally. â€Å"Highlighting the campaign were the appearances of the candidate's mother and sisters at hundreds of invitation-only social events where the Kennedy women served tea and charmed an estimated 70,000 women voters. A record turnout gave Kennedy a slim 76,000 vote margin over Lodge† (Baughman et. Al). Kennedy attracted large support from Boston, Irish-Catholics, Jews, labor union members, and some Republicans who thought Kennedy was more conservative than Lodge. 3. JFK, How he Became President Mr.Kennedy did his best to become and persuade people for him to become Vice-President, as that proved to no avail, he went towards a more direct approach, becoming President himself. In order to get votes and win the nomination of running for his party, he had to persuade some hard-headed mules that Catholics are able to win votes as well. In doing so, he set off a campaign which would be a very rough one for him indeed, for he was matched against Nixon. Without his televised broadcast of him against Nixon, he would have probably lost the election of becoming President for the argins between the two men were ever so slightly apart. b. Introducing John F. Kennedy with the Space Program The Space Program would be introduced in 1946, not as NASA but its ancestor NACA. While they have been preparing themselves for space, they constructed with planes and aerodynamics. When Sputnik 1 was launched by the U. S. S. R a strike of fear and lack of knowledge devoured the United States especially the governm ent. In order to retaliate, they devoted their studies and enhanced science and math subjects in order to redeem themselves from this feat.On July 28, 1958, President Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, which established NASA from there. NASA did not only evolve from its ancestor, but it absorbed everything from it. NASA took over and started its own missions on October 1st of the same year. When President Kennedy beat Eisenhower’s famous Nixon, he did his best to prove he was worthy of being U. S. A’s President. He worked with domestic and foreign affairs before heading into the Space Race. He knew the people of the United States needed to have the same confidence they once had before Sputnik 1 was launched.In order for this to occur, he went to Houston, Texas on September 12, 1962 to address the nation, that the Space Race must continue but needs the help of the government to help pay for the program (Logsdon). Before announcing this, on Februar y 20, 1962 John Glenn was the first man to be launched and orbit around the Earth’s atmosphere. This is what sparked the hope of the Space Exploration to continue. With President Kennedy’s power of words and the hope NASA has instilled into the people’s hearts, it seemed anything was possible.Even through Kennedy’s assassination, the Space Program continued its works to accomplish Kennedy’s dream of landing on the moon. 4. Kennedy’s Assassination and the Moon It was 12:30 Friday afternoon, on November 22, 1963, in Dealey Plaza, Texas when four gunshots were heard across the globe. Kennedy was fatally shot and died the same day, he was assassinated and although it may have said Lee Harvey Oswald was responsible for Kennedy’s death, it is still a conspiracy on whether he did it and if he did if there were other people involved.This case is still an unraveled mystery which hasn’t been solved ever since. Kennedy’s death shoc ked the globe but that didn’t stop NASA from reaching the moon. His death may have been very mournful, but NASA was devoted into finishing this last project Kennedy sent them out to do and that was to reach the moon. Some years later on July 20, 1969, the Apollo 11 astronauts Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins, and Buzz Aldrin accomplished the amazing feat of being the first and only men to land on the moon. III. ConclusionJohn Fitzgerald Kennedy was a remarkable man capable of reaching the impossible. One of the youngest Presidents ever, and had the mind of the wisest. Without his leadership and devotion of accomplishing the race to the moon, we wouldn’t have had the same spark of hope as we do today. His actions have led us to a new age, one that will forever be remembered. Although the Space Race has led us far, we haven’t had the time and money to go back to the Moon. Mr. Kennedy is the hope of all dreams. He is the moon and will forever be walking on it, while he waits for our return.Works Cited Baughman, Judith, Victor Bondi, Richard Layman, Tandy McConnell, and Vincent Tompkins. â€Å"American Decades. † Gale Cengage Learning, 1 Jan. 1998. Web. 16 Dec. 1998 Kennedy, John F. We Choose to go to the Moon. † John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, 12 Sept. 1962 Web. 7 Mar. 2012. Logsdon, John M. John F. Kennedy and the Race to the Moon New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2010.

Patrick Henry Essay

What do you think started the spark for the American Revolution? In the state of Virginia where all the great minds of the time met. Our forefathers where at a convention when a speaker of the name Patrick Henry speaks to the great patriots about what they should do about the war against Great Britain. The audience was full of patriots just like Henry that would die for their country in a heartbeat if it was needed to save their freedom and liberty. In a way to persuade the members of the Virginia convention to go to war with Britain Henry uses logical and emotional appeals. Why do you think Henry begins his speech with the statement â€Å"Mr. President: No man thinks more highly than I do of the patriotism, as well as abilities of the very worthy gentlemen who have just addressed the house. But different men often see the same subject in different lights† (101). Here, Patrick Henry is showing that he is true patriot just like the patriots that are opposing the same views. This could be regarded as a concession to the opposing view that patriotism is important, but also a rejection to the opposing side who may say that only those who are not patriots would fight the British. He is also show respect for those who hold opposite views that he has. The time that the speech took place was when the revolution was coming for the Americans. They knew that war was coming so Henry uses emotional appeal to the convention so that he can get there side on to go to war instead of waiting around and Henry says â€Å"Their changing may be hear on the plains of Boston! The war is inevitable and let it come I repeat, sir, let it come† (103). Henry is showing emotional appeal by wanting war to come so they can fight for their freedom. As a patriot he wants what is best for his country and he knows that war is coming. He embraces the war by telling the convention let it come because why wait for a war to happen and for their future generations to fight the war for them when it at their door step and as patriots they need react now or never. The Britain’s are the world power and they controlled the colonies, and the patriots of the 13 original colonies wanted the freedom now, but they were told they are weak. Henry states this to get the hopes up of his fellow patriots. â€Å"They tell us that we are weak- unable to cope with formidable an adversary but when be strong it will be next month or next year† (102). He raises the hopes using emotional appeal that they will the war easily because they are patriots and patriots stand up in what they believe in that they needed to be free from Britain’s Kings, taxes and rules so they could to become stronger. By using emotional and logical appeals Patrick Henry speech to the Virginia Convention he persuades them to go to war with Great Britain. He does this by making then patriots think about going to war for good reason. He also uses emotional appeals to get on the Convention side in the speech which influence their decision made by the forefathers. If not for this speech we could have all still been ruled by Great Britain.

Use of the veto Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Use of the veto - Research Paper Example Giving the president the veto power helps him to defend himself, as well as his office by preserving his own independence and importance, so that he can be relied on to exercise this power. However, Spitzer (12) argues that the veto power that was introduced into the presidency through the United States constitution, is limited compared to that of the British monarch’s veto that was used as reference by the founders. Unlike the king, of Great Britain who has an absolute veto, the president of the United States has limited veto that can be overridden by a two-thirds vote, in both the house and the senate. Reason for doing this was that the framers of the U. S. constitution believed a limited veto would be more efficient than an absolute one because it would be put into active use; thus, promote political development. Gilmour (198) evaluates both the president and presidency approaches to give centered explanations of the presidential activities in relation to their power to use the veto. He uses individual bill data passed by Congress to determine the extent to which institutional factors account for vetoes and how variation accounts for an individual president’s veto behaviour (Gilmour, 198). As stated by Gilmour (199), the presidential vetoes mainly occur when the congress passes objectionable bills, which bring the president under control of the congress. However, despite being controlled by the congress, most presidents have different veto behaviour with some being more prone to using veto than others. For this reason, Gilmour (200) claims that the president’s veto decision is highly influenced by external factors although individual choices and strategies of presidents also play a significant influence. Gilmour (200) argues that contemporary research on the president has focused more on the presidency-centered approach than the president-centered approach. The presidency-centered approach states that the president is a clerk and that

LLC manager and LLC member Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

LLC manager and LLC member - Research Paper Example If a LLC is managed by a manager the decision making responsibility falls in the hand of the individual who has been elected by the members as a manager. The members can choose a manager from within the group of the members of the company or they can even opt for an individual who is not a member of the company. Individuals who are elected as managers for an LLC are responsible to act and make decisions carefully and present utmost loyalty, these duties of a manager of LLC are recognized as fiduciary duties and these duties are similar to the duties that are performed by corporate directors. Members within an LLC can determine the voting policy and the voting rights of the members of the company, according to ULLCA, the voting rights of the members is dependant on their investment in the company and voting policy states that a decision can be made with the aid of the majority votes (Batman, 2011,

The Importance of the Physician in the Generic and Trade-name Article

The Importance of the Physician in the Generic and Trade-name Prescription Decision - Article Example The time frame and period analyzed in the whole article ranges between 1984 and 1996. This is evident during the introduction of generics in 1984, when all firms that wanted to market, a post-patent expiration generic had to show the efficacy and safety of the drug through tests to the Food and Drug Administration. In the course of time, the Congress implemented the permissive substitution laws in an effort to encourage the use of generic drugs. In addition, the research shows that in 1996, information from IMS America Inc. showed that managed care payments such as private managed care as HMOS AND Medicaid HMOs amounted for over 505 of dollar revenues for pharmaceutical retail sales (Hellerstein, 109). The data sources used in the analysis involve information from a survey of physicians, their patients, and drugs prescribed. In this case, physicians use patient by patient basis to test whether physicians prescribe generics to patients who are not covered by insurance and the effects of state legislation on generic prescription (Hellerstein, 109). The main findings of the whole research show that physicians are important agents in prescription decisions. Therefore, identifying the sources of heterogeneity in behavior across physicians is an integral factor of understanding how the markets for prescription drugs operate. Individuals learn how physicians behavior whenever they have different information and incentives in the areas of specialization. The new information learned from the article indicates that changes are still occurring among physicians through the continued growth of managed care due to increase in market share of generic drugs. At the same time, there probabilities that emphasis on cost containment in Health Maintenance Organizations may cause price differential between a trade name and generic drugs since there are existing negotiations with manufacturers on price discounts.

Lessons Learned of the Vietnam War Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Lessons Learned of the Vietnam War - Essay Example The Vietnam War serves as one of the most dominant and influential international conflicts appeared after the Second Great War (Mahajan, 2003) on the horizons of the world, encompassing the Far East in its fold, and leaving an indelible impact of its horrible consequences in the entire region as well as on the rest of the world at large. Started during the climax of Cold War (Arora 2002) between the then two strategic Super Powers i.e. the USSR and USA, the war lasted for twenty long years from 1955 to 1975, and ended in the heavy losses of men and material of the invaded Vietnam as well as the complete humiliation and degradation of the invader USA eventually. Although, the American administration and forces applied every possible strategy and even military brutality on the country, particularly the Mai Lai catastrophic massacre (Fallows 2009) , yet the defensive state, along with its forces and masses belonging to this small Far East state of Vietnam, did not surrender one single i nch of their territorial boundaries; at last their exemplary fortitude, unflinching will-power and unabated determination forced the US military might to surrender and hence paved the way for the cessation and exit of the American troops from their country at last. The Lessons America Learnt:The analysts, since the aftermath of the Vietnam War onward, remained engaged in making investigations of the causes behind the failure of the US mission in a country, which apparently looked a very easy target, though turned out to be a hard nut to crack; even its population, economic position and military force was far lesser in comparison with the American might. Consequently, discovering the chronicles of events that turned the US invasion over Vietnam as nightmare for her had turned to be a moot point to be discussed at every forum for the future years to come. One of the most fatal mistakes committed by the invading country was sending a huge army of almost 3 million US men and women thous ands of miles away from their fatherland in order to fight a foreign soil just for stopping the advancement of communism from entering the northern part of Vietnam (Anghie 2007).5 Actually the US foreign strategy remained revolving around creating certain impediments on the way to the advancements of Communist Russia; in order to keep an overwhelming majority of the world sovereign-states under the US influence and economic subjugation as well.6 Consequently, protection of her economic system capitalism served to be the most vital issue for the Americans, for the security of which the US leadership dragged the military personnel into a certain inferno, which cost the lives of over 2.5 million people on both the warring sides eventually (Kalyvas & Kocher 2003). Hence, the Americans fought a fruitless war hundreds of miles away from their home in order to tame a small Asian state by wasting a huge amount of dollars for a useless pursuit. It is therefore the USA has assured the least c hances of the occurrence of deaths

Assignment 1 Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

1 - Assignment Example proach that is used by a management team in an organization to find means of improving the quality of the organization’s products and services based on constant refinements in reaction to customer feedback (Sakthivel et al, 2007). The requirements of TQM may be different depending on the type of organization or International Organization Standardization (ISO) series. TQM is applicable to all types of organizations. TQM originated from the manufacturing sector and is currently applied in any form of imaginable organization such as hospital, schools, churches, hotel industry, and highway maintenance. TQM, which is a current focus in e-commerce, it is part of quality management depending on the views of customers (Choisne, de Grosbois, & Kumar, 2009). Question 3: Quality management refers to a function used by companies to make sure that the quality of their operations and goods meets a certain level of standards. Organizational managers and owners are the individuals who typically play the role of setting quality standards for their organizations (Ōno, 2013). The two major parts of quality standards in an organization are design and process quality. Design quality standards define the requirements that goods and services must reach in order to be sold. Therefore, if the goods and services, lack some of these requirements, the company must make corrections to the goods before selling them. On the other hand, the purpose of process quality standards is to design the owner of a business from unnecessary costs that may result from manufacturing rejects or repairs. Process quality standards ensure that the production department follows set procedures in order to achieve the design quality standards. Question 4: In general, quality refers to a definite level or degree of excellence. Therefore, the cost of quality in the workplace refers to the costs incurred while preventing defects’ occurrence and the costs that a firm incurs due to evaluation of its progress

Movie analysis Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Movie analysis - Assignment Example The movie therefore provides an analysis of events in prisons across Russia and other parts of the world. According to Z?iz?ek (2011), one of the most interesting sequence in the movie is when Kyle and 451 gain each other’s trust after a plot to have 451 (Taylor) kill Kyle. The sequence shows different stylistic styles used in the movie. The producer uses different styles of form in this sequence. For instance, the movie uses both bright and dark colors showing Kyle and 451 sitting on their beds in one of the nights. The different colors depicted include the prisoners’ yellow clothes, the dark colored beddings and cell floors. The lightness of the color used causes an illumination of the walls of the cells. However, the value of the color changes from light to dark as the producer portrays different angles of shots taken. This sequence shows both positive and negative space. Positive space refers to light that illuminates Kyle and 451’s cell. This light reflects on the cell’s walls. The positive space also emanates from the guards’ spotlight. These guards are conducting their daily night shifts’ patrols. The use of shallow and deep space is also evident in this sequence. The type of space used varies with the angles of shots. The piece components in this sequence mainly appears in three-dimensional form. This sequence’s setting is in the prison’s cells. The sequence occurs at night when the prisoners are sleeping after taking their supper. Kyle and 451 are sitting on their beds while conversing in low tones confirms that this sequence occurs during the night. There are only two characters in this sequence. There are two beds for each of the inmates with one bed above the other. A small table exits beside the wall on the furthest point of the cell’s entrance. Kyle has a well-coiffured dark hair and dons a white vest. Both men are muscular although 451 has grey hair different from Kyle’s dark h air. Both men seems to gain each other’s trust since they appear relaxed and understands one another very well. The two plan their next course of actions further indicating the mutual understanding between the two inmates. The shots used in this sequence are majorly close-up and medium shots with no use of long shots. The locked steel doors of the cell occur in foreground while the cell’s walls and the table beside the wall form the background. This sequence highlights one of the major characteristics of prisons that is, plot by prison guards to murder some of the inmates. 451(Taylor) is famous for killing inmates and therefore the guards plan to use him to murder Kyle. The guards put Kyle into a solitary confinement after involving in a fight with one of the inmates who provoked him in a similar manner as the wife’s murderer. In order to have Kyle killed; the guards transfer him to a cell inhabited by 451 (Z?iz?ek, 2011). However, this plot for 451 to kill Kyle fails when the two develop an understanding and become friends to the amusement of the guards. The sequence, which leads to 451 and Kyle’s escape, is one of the major sequences with significant artistic styles and features. This sequence occurs during the day when Kyle and Miloc cause a riot with the guards. This sequence involves only Kyle and 451 at the beginning. This sequence occurs in the prison halls in the fighting ring where Kyle and Miloc were to fight. Unlike the first one, this sequence

Hanson was hailed as an example of how the effective use of management Essay - 1

Hanson was hailed as an example of how the effective use of management resources can lead to success. Explain the growth of Hanson highlighting both internal an - Essay Example and as a result gain above average earnings and returns, this strategy states that the firm has to first identify the potential resources that will lead to growth, the next step is to evaluate these resources on whether they are valuable, rare, the ability to control these resources and whether the resources can gain value in the future. According to this strategy the firm will select an attractive industry to invest where the firm will have the opportunity to fully exploit its resources. The firm will also have to be capable of integrating their resource to perform tasks which will help the firm gain competitive advantage over its rivals. Chandler (1960) introduced the strategy and structure theory which stated that organisations were the agents of the industry, for this reason therefore the organisations determined industrial transformation, according to this theory the market mechanism is replaced by the enterprises which allocate resources and coordinate activities, in his view the invisible hand in the market is replaced by the visible hand of management. This strategy also states that the organisation moves from an unmanaged form of organisation to a managed form of organisation and for this reason management becomes a source of power to the organisation because management ensures continuous growth. Hanson stated that his management skills could be applied to any industry in the economy, his growth strategy was based on a number of objectives and strategy which can be referred to as conglomerate strategy, he chose companies were located in the US or in the UK. After acquiring these companies Hanson would reorganise the company to achieve high levels of earnings and the company would gain value, after the organisation gained value he would sell the company at a higher price than he acquired it. When the company was acquired he would undertake strategies that would oversee the growth of the organisation, the growth of the organisation was made possible by

How can insurance be used to decrease healthcare costs and increase Essay

How can insurance be used to decrease healthcare costs and increase quality of care - Essay Example The quality of the treatment is another problem that needs consideration. Most of the uninsured and low-income groups are not in a position to get good quality healthcare. The present essay is intended to study a brief history of healthcare industry and to analyze problems and reasons for the high costs associated. The proposals that are put forward for the reformation of current state of healthcare system also would be analyzed so as to reach a conclusion on the best strategy to be adopted so as to decrease the costs of healthcare and to increase the quality of the healthcare. The health insurance plans began in United States of America during the civil war that took place during 1861 to 1865 (Murray, 2007). At that time only accidents that was caused during transport and that too through either rail or steamboat had any coverage for insurance. Since then more and more plans, which provided coverage for most of the illness were added and in the year 1847, Massachusetts Health Insurance of Boston offered the first group policy with a lot of benefits. Individual disability and illness policies were issued by 1890. Arguments or cry for modern group health insurance plan was started in United States only in 1920s and by that time it was far behind many of the European countries. But there was no political pressure for such a law. Reformers started to ask the cost of medical care instead of wages lost due to sickness mainly because the former was much higher than the latter in as early as 1920s. During this period itself the health care available to poor people in the country was quite inadequate. The first company to offer health insurance coverage for all its employees was General Motors (Murray, 2007). The depression that gulped the country in 1930's resulted in more insurance coverage for unemployed and aged people. There was no priority for healthcare insurance at that time. Blue cross, which is a non-profit organization, began to offer health insurance in a number of states during this period. In Blues every one irrespective of age or sex or their disease conditions were charged the same premium. Since the Blues were created by hospitals, potential patients were encouraged to sign up (Noah, 2007). It was in 1940's that the present practice of employer-based system of health insurance was first offered (Noah, 2007). This was in an effort to combat the wage and price controls during the Second World War. The labor unions urged for better benefits and tax-free employer sponsored health insurance. The employers had to attract their employees and so they offered whatever that was asked for. Prepaid group healthcare was started at this time. President Truman was a proponent of national health program plan in which the government would be the payer of the whole of the American society. At that time it was opposed by American Medical Association and the law or bill could

A Manifesto for Sustainable Design Essay Example for Free

A Manifesto for Sustainable Design Essay This manifesto proposes an approach to sustainable design that I am interested in exploring during my time studying architecture. The idea of sustainability is a complex one, not without apparent contradictions. This makes it difficult to define in a wholly satisfactory manner. For the purposes of this manifesto I will advert to the definition proposed by Jason McLennan who asserts that sustainable design: â€Å"seeks to maximize the quality of the built environment, while minimizing or eliminating negative impact to the natural environment. † I find this definition particularly useful in the emphasis which it places on quality. By quality, in this context, I mean an approach to building which emphasises not only thoughtful design but also the careful use of materials; these considerations are crucial to achieve sustainable development. â€Å"Quality† as the architect Thomas Sandell says â€Å"is always sustainable†: this holds particularly true if we return to the most basic meaning of that adjective – â€Å"long lasting.† My manifesto would involve seven basic considerations: a structure should be layered, generous, contextual, connected to nature, innovative, stimulating and idealistic. I propose to examine each of these points in turn, aware that they can be generally grouped under the heading of sensitivity. As I see it, a sensitive approach to architecture is one that fundamentally responds to the issues of site, user and impact, while not excluding other concerns – and all this in a way that is considered, thoughtful and restrained. These, then, are the fundamentals of my approach to design. 1. Layered According to T.S Eliot, â€Å"Genuine poetry communicates before it is understood†: I believe the same holds true for genuine architecture. It affects us at a pre-conscious level and its impact transcends the immediate, sensory, effects of the building. As I see it, architecture is not a matter of superficial effects. Its must transcend that which is little more than eye-catching gimmickry. A good example of what I would consider a layered design is Erik Gunnar Asplund’s Woodland Chapel built in 1922 (Fig. 1). Located on the grounds of the Woodland Crematorium in Enskede outside Stockholm, it was built to accommodate the funerals of children. At first, the chapel seems unremarkable in its elemental simplicity – as Simon Unwin puts it â€Å"without pretentions to being anything more than a rudimentary hut in the woods.† However, in quiet and richly suggestive ways, Asplund imbues this seemingly uncomplicated building with a poetic sense of an ancient and timeless place for burial. As J.R Curtis puts it, this apparently simple chapel was: â€Å"guided by underlying mythical themes to do with the transition from life to death, the procession of burial and redemption and the transubstantiation of natural elements such as water and light. There were echoes too of Nordic burial mounds and of Christ’s route to Calvary.† Fig. 1 Erik Gunnar Asplund, Woodland Chapel, 1922  One striking aspect can be found in Asplund’s sensitive treatment of the theme of resurrection. The idea is usually made explicit through the use of iconography; Asplund, however, evokes the notion of rebirth through his use of subtle association. The Chapel, for example, has only one source of light, which comes from above. The eye is therefore drawn upwards, to the heavens. This effect is accentuated by the pervasive darkness of the building. Like Robert Venturi, Asplund opts for â€Å"richness of meaning rather than clarity of meaning.† As a result, his Woodland Chapel has an uplifting rather than a depressing effect. His Chapel becomes an affirmation of life rather than an acceptance of defeat, and this appeals to me very much. It is no surprise to discover that Asplund himself – in a 1940 article on his crematorium building in Byggmà ¤staren – referred to the Woodland Cemetery, in which the Chapel lies, as a ‘biblical landscape’. Whatever else it is, the Bible is a book of hope. 2. Generous â€Å"Design is people† Jane Jacobs Jane Jacobs’s fundamental commitment to ordinary human beings is something I admire. Generous architecture offers an approach which puts everyday people at the forefront of the design. This is an inclusive architecture which does not limit itself only to the client and/or private users of the building.  Nobody is excluded. An example of this kind of what might be described as â€Å"generous† architecture can be found in Norwegian firm Snà ¸hetta’s Oslo Opera House on the waters of the Oslo Fjord, completed in 2007 (Fig. 2). Fig. 2 Snà ¸hetta, Oslo Opera House, 2007 Snà ¸hetta are concerned with the social dimension of architecture and this design imaginatively reinterprets the traditional opera houses that â€Å"conventionally limit their public spaces to exterior plazas or grand lobbies, often only accessible during opening hours.† What is striking here is that their Opera House succeeds in giving back to the city a public space. The sloping rooftop becomes a new public area: a recreation space and viewing platform that you can walk on, sit on, sunbathe on, even snowboard on. As a result anyone, whether interested in Opera or not, can enjoy the space. The building has been called a social democratic monument† by founding partner of Snà ¸hetta, Craig Dykers – and one can see why. In a recent television interview, Dykers went on to remark: â€Å"There is a sense of being able to place your feet onto the building that gives you a sense of ownership. At a certain point you no longer see the building as an architect’s building but as your own building† This is the kind of architecture which interests me. The fact that this building is sited in the middle of a highly populated area shows what can be done to help people live a fuller life – including those who have no focused interest in the Arts. This approach seems particularly relevant as more and more people live in cities and comes as a reminder that a city need not be a soulless, inhuman place. 3. Contextual â€Å"Always design a thing by considering it in its next larger context a chair in a room, a room in a house, a house in an environment, an environment in a city plan.† Eliel Saarinen Architecture is inextricably rooted to place. An awareness of context then, would seem to be a sine qua non but unfortunately this is not always the case. An understanding of the social, historical, environmental, cultural and human qualities of a place is vital to building to best effect. By  Ã¢â‚¬Å"contextual†, then, I mean an architecture that is sensitive to the history and memory of the site. This would by no means exclude an awareness of the buildings that surround it. I admire Alvar Aalto for his understanding of the importance of relating design to the most significant features of the local site: the kind of features that are, as Michael Trencher puts it, â€Å"either physically self-evident or historically and culturally relevant.† Aalto’s design for the Enso-Gutzeit Headquarters in Helsinki, (1959-62), affords a good example of this approach (Fig. 3). Fig. 3 Alvar Aalto, Enso-Gutzeit Headquarters in Helsinki, 1959-62 The site for this building was in the old, Neo-Classical centre of the city and Aalto sought to respond to Engel’s buildings on the harbour and to the Church on a nearby hill. Arising out of his respect for the site, the scale of Aalto’s office building derives â€Å"both its horizontal and vertical character from the nearby historical buildings, hence its symmetrical, formal faà §ade.† A more recent example of contextually sensitive design is afforded by Grafton Architect’s proposal for the new Faculty of Economics for the University of Toulouse, still under construction. While envisaging their project, the architects walked from one side of the city to the other, â€Å"gauging the character of the brick facades, the polygonal towers, the transitions from streets to courts and the underlying spatial patterns.† The resulting design offers a sensitive response to the layered history and unique geography of the site. As founding partner Shelley McNamara has put it, the building â€Å"weaves into the mesh of the city.† 4. Connected to Nature â€Å"Study nature, love nature, stay close to nature. It will never fail you.† Frank Lloyd Wright By nature I mean a world predominantly uninterfered with by man. Building in a way that is sensitive to what is natural, its resources and habitats is a key issue in current debates about sustainable design. That said, it is nearly one hundred years since Frank Lloyd Wright offered architectural proposals showing how to live in harmony with the environment. He called this â€Å"an organic architecture†¦of nature, for nature.† Lloyd Wright also understood the connection between nature and  well-being: â€Å"the closer man associated himself with nature, the greater his personal, spiritual and even physical well-being grew and expanded as a direct result of that association.† It is hard not to agree wholeheartedly with Lloyd Wright’s philosophy. As I see it, Architecture must connect to the natural world—not just in terms of the use of resources or in merely avoiding the negative impact of building on the environment—but also, as importantly, in terms of what a connection to nature can offer. His design for the Kaufmann Residence at Falling Water provides an obvious example of Lloyd Wright’s respect for nature and the natural world (Fig. 4). Fig. 4: Frank Lloyd Wright, Falling Water, 1935 At Falling Water, as Neil Levine remarks: â€Å"you do not ask where the house ends and the natural environment begins.† This sensitivity is present throughout his oeuvre, so that his buildings often seem to grow out of the environment and never appear at odds with it. 5. Innovative There is often an assumption that to be truly innovative is to break away from all that went before, to create something totally new. I do not agree. As I see it, the most interesting avant-garde architecture has always been steeped in an understanding of the past. As T.S Eliot said â€Å"To be totally original is to be totally bad.† Just as every human being comes from parents, so every new idea owes something to what has gone before. While not rejecting the achievements of the past, Le Corbusier understood that new challenges require innovative thinking. He proposed radical ideas to enrich modern living, â€Å"from private villas to large scale social housing to utopian urban plans.† Yet his inexhaustible inventiveness, â€Å"that heretical habit, driving-force of all his artistic desires† was always rooted in an understanding of what had gone before. His 1955 design for the Chapel of Notre Dame du Haut, in Ronchamp, (Fig. 5) provides a good example, though it marked a profound change in direction from his earlier works and a move away from standardization and the machine aesthetic adverted to in Towards a New Architecture. J.R Curtis even suggests that â€Å"a nostalgia for the giant ruins of antiquity† began increasingly to show itself in Le Corbusier’s  imaginatively forward thinking work. Fig. 5 Le Corbusier, Chapel of Notre Dame du Haut, 1955 In a manner similar to the approach of Asplund for his Woodland Chapel, Le Corbusier sought to evoke religious emotions through the play of space, light and form rather than relying on traditional iconography. In my opinion, what particularly makes the building exciting is its mixture of old and new, its daringly original design linking with an organic awareness of past forms. Curtis suggests a synthesis of influences: from Hadrian’s Villa to the mud buildings from the Mzab in Algeria, to Dolmens and Cycladic buildings, to the Parthenon itself. Out of an awareness of these sources, Le Corbusier manages to invent a new vocabulary. Other examples of this syncretism mixed with an innovative approach can be found in his designs for the Villa Madrot in Le Prdet, the Pavillon Suisse in Paris and the Duval Facory in Saint Die. The result has been described as â€Å"a wholly new formal idiom†Ã¢â‚¬â€ and one which owes its impact to the combination of the past and the wholly modern. An interesting contemporary comparison is The Sea Organ, in Zadar Croatia by Nikola BaÃ… ¡ic, built in 2005. The architect consulted master organ makers and Dalmatian stone carvers in his wish to create an experimental installation on the quayside to create a natural musical organ powered by the waves of the sea. Underneath its elegant white stone steps are 35 musically tuned tubes, through which the waves create random harmonic sounds. This kind of architecture excites me: strikingly innovative, yet sensitively grounded to the history of the site and traditions of the local people. 6. Stimulative Stimulative architecture, I would define as that which lifts the spirit, making us feel more alive. It surprises and challenges us even as it makes us appreciate more the needs it fulfils. Charles Rennie Mackintosh’s design for the Glasgow School of Art affords a good example (Fig. 6). Built in two phases from 1897-1899 and 1907-1909, the School still excites not least by its subtle playfulness. Around every corner the visitor is struck by something unexpected. Fig. 6, Charles Rennie Mackintosh, Glasgow School of Art, 1899 On a closer look, a fusion of opposites emerges. Materials range widely and include leaded stained glass, exposed concrete and painted softwood. Their interplay is matched by an unexpected synthesis of light and dark, mass and plane, the old and the new, the solid and the void. As a result, the building imparts what Denys Lasdun calls â€Å"the brooding air of frozen excitement.† The fundamental stress lies in its manipulation of space. It seems to provide an example of what David Brett describes as a kind of â€Å"poetic workmanship† where structure, features, interiors and furnishings become â€Å"subject to a unifying system of forms, metaphors and unconscious associations.† 7. Idealistic This concept ranges widely and includes respect for people coupled with a hope to advance and uplift. It is the opposite of cynical or purely utilitarian. A building finally is more than something purely functional. It should have a spirit and not turn its back on artistic considerations. I would argue that idealism is the underlying principle to all the approaches of the architects above. Even if idealism is a difficult idea to define, it still has a reality and nowhere is it, and conversely the cynical, more obvious than in architecture. â€Å"The ultimate goal of architecture†, said Aalto in 1957,†¨Ã¢â‚¬Å"is to create a paradise†¦ every house, every product†¨of architecture†¦should be a fruit of our endeavour to†¨build an earthly paradise for people.† This idea appeals greatly to me and would be one of the basic impulses behind my approach to architecture. Conclusion In conclusion, the seven points of this manifesto provide an overview of some approaches to sustainable design that I am interested in exploring during my time studying architecture. These basic considerations propose a design that is layered, generous, contextual, connected to nature, innovative, stimulating and idealistic. These approaches can be loosely grouped under the idea of sensitivity, that is a respect for people, nature, site and  precedent. Examples of these considerations can be found in the work of architects, both past and present: from the timeless profundity of Asplund’s Woodland Chapel to the striking innovations of Le Corbusier and more recent examples from Grafton Architects Toulouse Economics Department and Snà ¸hetta’s Oslo Opera House. This is a manifesto for a lasting architecture. The bottom line is that sustainability is not a design aesthetic, as Robert Stern points out: â€Å"it is an ethic, a basic consideration that we have to have as architects designing buildings†¦ in 10 years were not going to talk about sustainability anymore, because its going to be built into the core processes of architecture†. List of Illustrations Fig. 1: Erik Gunnar Asplund, Woodland Chapel, 1922 (Source: http://www.fubiz.net accessed January 12, 2012) Fig. 2: Snà ¸hetta, Oslo Opera House, 2007 (Source: http://www.mimoa.eu accessed January 12, 2012) Fig. 3: Alvar Aalto, Enso-Gutzeit Headquarters in Helsinki, 1959-62 (Source: http://www.fubiz.net accessed January 14, 2012) Fig. 4: Frank Lloyd Wright, Falling Water, 1935 (Source: http://www.mimoa.eu accessed January 12, 2012) Fig. 5: Le Corbusier, Chapel of Notre Dame du Haut, 1955 (http://farm4.static.flickr.com accessed January 20, 2012) Fig. 6: Charles Rennie Mackintosh, Glasgow School of Art, 1899 (Source: http://www.glasgowarchitecture.co.uk accessed January 12, 2012) Bibliography Allen, Brooks H. (editor), Le Corbusier: Essays, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987 Anderson, Jane, Architectural Design, London: Thames Hudson Press, 2011 http://www.architectural-review.com accessed November 22, 2011 http://bigthink.com accessed December 12, 2011 Blundell Jones, Peter, Gunnar Asplund, London: Phaidon, 1995. Blake, Peter, Frank Lloyd Wright: Architecture and Space, London: Penguin Books, 1964 http://www.blackwoodgallery.ca accessed November 11, 2011 Brett, David, C.R Mackintosh: The Poetics of Workmanship, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992 Brooks, Bruce, Frank Lloyd Wright, 1867-1959: Building for Democracy, Hong Kong: Taschen, 2006 http://www.coldsplinters.com accessed 22 November, 2011 ‘Craig Dykers Interview’ GRITtv on youtube.com, 12 November, 2011 Curtis, William J.R, Modern Architecture Since 1900, London: Phaidon, 1996 Eliot, T. S., â€Å"Dante.† in Selected Essays New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1950 Elkin, T., McLaren, D. and Hillman, M., Reviving the City: towards sustainable urban development, London: Friends of the Earth, 1991 Gill, Brendan, Many Masks: A Life of Frank Lloyd Wright, New York: Putman, 1987 http://www.graftonarchitects.ie accessed October 25, 2011 Heinz, Thomas A., The Vision of Frank Lloyd Wright. London: Chartwell Books, 2000 Hertzberger, Herman, Space and the Architect, Rotterdam: 010 Press, 2000 Hoffmann, Donald, Frank Lloyd Wrights Fallingwater: The House and Its History, New York: Dover Publications, 1978 Honour, Hugh, A World History of Art, London: Laurence King, 2005 http://imodern.com accessed January 22, 2012 Jencks, Charles, Le Corbusier and the Continental Revolution in Architecture, New York: The Monacelli Press, 2000 Maddex, Diane, Frank Lloyd Wright: Inside and Out, London: Pavilion, 2002 Middleton, Haydn, Frank Lloyd Wright, New York: Heinemann, 2001 McLennan, Jason, The Philosophy of Sustainable Design, New York: Ecotone Publishing, 2004 Pallasmaa, Juhani, The Eyes of the Skin: Architecture and the Senses, Wiley-Academy, 2005 Pearson, Paul David, Alvar Aalto and the International Style, New York: Whitney Library of Design, 1978 Quantrill, Malcolm, Finnish Architecture and the Modernist Tradition, London: Taylor Francis, 1995 Ray, Nicholas, Alvar Aalto, London: Yale University Press. 2005 Ryan, Zoe, Open: New Designs for Public Space, New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2004 www.sandellsandberg.se accessed November 22, 2011 http://www.spatialagency.net/ accessed November 21, 2011 Tempel, Egon, New Finnish Architecture, New York, Washington: Frederick A. Praeger, 1968 http://www.treehugger.com accessed November 22, 2011 Trencher, Michael, The Alvar Aalto Guide, New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1996 Unwin, Simon, Analysing Architecture Venturi, Robert, Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture New York: Museum of Modern Art Press, 1966 Wolschke-Bulmahn, Joachim, Places of Commemoration, Washington: Dumbarton Oaks, 2001 [ 1 ]. McLennan, Jason, The Philosophy of Sustainable Design, New York: Ecotone Publishing, 2004, p.5 [ 2 ]. www.sandellsandberg.se accessed November 22, 2011 [ 3 ]. Eliot, T. S., â€Å"Dante.† in Selected Essays New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1950, pp. 199-237 [ 4 ]. Unwin, Simon, Analysing Architecture, p.255 [ 5 ]. Ibid. p. 256 [ 6 ]. Curtis, William J.R, Modern Architecture Since 1900, London: Phaidon, 1996, p. 113 [ 7 ]. Wolschke-Bulmahn, Joachim, Places of Commemoration, Washington: Dumbarton Oaks, 2001, p.1016 [ 8 ]. Venturi, Robert, Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture New York: Museum of Modern Art Press, 1966, p.16 [ 9 ]. Johansson, pp. 59-60 [ 10 ]. http://www.blackwoodgallery.ca accessed November 11, 2011 [ 11 ]. Anderson, Jane, Architectural Design, London: Thames Hudson Press, 2011, p. 129 [ 12 ]. Ryan, Zoà «, Open: New Designs for Public Space, New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2004, p. 28 [ 13 ]. Ibid. p. 29 [ 14 ]. ‘Craig Dykers Interview’ GRITtv on youtube.com, 12 November, 2011 [ 15 ]. Eliel Saarinen, Time Magazine July 2, 1956 [ 16 ]. Trencher, Michael, The Alvar Aalto Guide, New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1996, p.34 [ 17 ]. Quantrill, Malcolm, Finnish Architecture and the Modernist Tradition, London: Taylor Francis, 1995, p. 122 [ 18 ]. Tempel, Egon, New Finnish Architecture, New York, Washington: Frederick A. Praeger, 1968, p148 [ 19 ]. http://www.architectural-review.com accessed November 22, 2011 [ 20 ]. http://www.graftonarchitects.ie accessed October 25, 2011 [ 21 ]. Middleton, Haydn, Frank Lloyd Wright, New York: Heinemann, 2001 [ 22 ]. Brooks, Bruce, Frank Lloyd Wright, 1867-1959: Building for Democracy, Hong Kong: Taschen, 2006 p. 12 [ 23 ]. Ibid. p.

Dementia Sufferer Mental

Dementia Sufferer Mental Introduction Dementia is a loss of mental function in two or more areas such as language, memory, visual and spatial abilities, or judgment severe enough to interfere with daily life3. Dementia is not a disease itself, sufferers show a broader set of symptoms that accompany certain diseases or physical conditions3. Well known diseases that cause dementia include Alzheimer’s disease, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and multi-infarct dementia3. Dementia is an acquired and progressive problem that affects cognitive functions, behavior, thinking processes and the ability to carry out normal activities. Vision is one of the most important primary senses, therefore serious or complete sight loss has a major impact on a individuals ability to communicate effectively and function independently. Individuals who suffer from both dementia and serious vision loss will inevitably be subject to profound emotional, practical, psychological and financial problems. These factors will also influence others around the sufferer and will extend to family and the greater society. As we get older both dementia and visual problems inevitably become much more prevalent. Current demographic trends show the increase of the number of very old in our population. Therefore it is inevitable that dementia and serious sight loss either alone or together, will have important consequences for all of us3. The vast majority of people are aware that dementia affects the memory. However it is the impact it has on the ability to carry out daily tasks and problems with behavior that cause particular problems, and in severe cases can lead to institutionalization. In the primary stages of dementia, the patient can be helped by friends and family through ‘reminders’. As progression occurs the individual will loose the skills needed for everyday tasks and may eventually fail to recognize family members, a condition known as prospagnosia. The result of such progression is that the individual becomes totally dependent on others. Dementia not only affects the lives of the individual, but also the family9. Dementia can present itself in varying forms. The most common form of dementia in the old is Alzheimers disease, affecting millions of people. It is a degenerative condition that attacks the brain. Progression is gradual and at a variable rate. Symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease are impaired memory, thinking and changes in behaviour. Dementia with Lewy bodies and dementias linked to Parkinsons disease are responsible for around 10-20% of all dementias. Dementia with Lewy bodies is of particular interest as individuals with this condition not only present confusion and varying cognition, but also present symptoms of visual hallucinations9. Another common conditions that causes dementia is multi-infarct dementia, also known as vascular dementia. It is the second most common form on dementia after alzheimers disease in the elderly. Multi infarct dementia is caused by multiple strokes in the brain. These series of strokes can affect some intellectual abilities, impair motor skills an d also cause individuals to experience visual hallucinations. Individuals with multi infarct dementia are prone to risk factors for stroke, such as high BP, heart disease and diabetes. Multi infarct dementia cannot be treated, once nerve cells die they cannot be replaced. X3 In most cases the symptoms of dementia and serious sight loss develop independently. However some conditions can cause both visual and cognitive impairments, for example Down syndrome, Multiple sclerosis and diabetes. Dementia is most prevalent in the elderly, as is sight loss. Therefore it is inevitable that a number of people will present dementia together with serious sight loss. There have been many studies into the prevalence of dementia in the UK. An estimate for the prevalence of dementia in people over 75 years of age is 15% of the population9. The Alzheimer’s society suggest that 775,200 people in the UK suffer from dementia (figures taken 2001). The Alzheimer’s society also calculates that the prevalence of dementia in the 65-75 years age group is 1 in 50, for 70-80 years 1 in 20 and for over 80 years of age 1 in 5. Estimates suggest that by 2010 approximately 840,000 people will become dementia sufferers in the UK. Estimates suggest that around 40% of dementia sufferers are in residential institutions. One study from 1996 showed that dementia sufferers are 30 times more likely to live in an institution than people without dementia. At 65 years of age men are 3 times more likely than women to live in an institution and at 86 men and women are equally likely to be institutionalized10 Visual impairments are not associated general diagnostic features of dementia. However recent research has shown the change in visual function and visual processing may be relevant. Alzheimer’s disease patients often present problems with visual acuity, contrast sensitivity, stereo-acuity and color vision. These problems are believed to be more true of cognitive dysfunction rather than any specific problems in the eye or optic nerve9. Early diagnosis is essential to both dementia and sight loss patients, as drug treatments are becoming more and more available. Therefore maximizing the treatment and care for the individual. On the other hand early diagnosis of visual conditions is also essential, so that progression is slowed and treatment is commenced, therefore further progression is prevented if plausible9. The Mini-Mental State examination MMSE, is the most commonly used cognitive test for the diagnosis of dementia. It involves the patient to undertake tests of memory and cognition. It takes the form of a series of questions/answers and uses written, verbal and visual material. Poor vision or blindness is the most common cause of poor performance on this test other than dementia itself9. Research, development and investment in the future will help to contribute to improved care for dementia and sight loss sufferers. A better understanding of the daily lives and experiences of these people will give us a greater insight into the problems faced and will help to improve the quality of care available9. Alzheimer’s disease The aim of this paper is to provide information about current knowledge on the topic on visual function dementia. With regards to Alzheimer’s disease there will be an inclination to several main foci of research, namely anatomical/structural changes, functional visual changes, cognitive brain changes and other changes such as the effects of diagnostic drugs on Alzheimer’s disease patients. Alzheimer’s disease is the most common cause of dementia amongst older adults. The Alzheimer’s research trust estimates that 700,000 individuals in the UK currently are afflicted. This number will inevitably increase exponentially in the near future with the trend of an increasingly aging UK population. Therefore it must be of the utmost of importance worldwide to have an understanding all behavioral, anatomical and physiological aspects of this disease. Alzheimer’s disease is a degenerative disease that attacks the brain, it begins gradually and progresses at a variable rate. Common signs are impaired thinking, memory and behavior. Health professionals and care givers agree that the memory deficit is usually the initial sign of the disease. However researchers have long known that Alzheimer’s disease is characterized by impairments of several additional domains, including visual function11. However these findings have not yet appeared in the diagnostic guides consulted by healthcare professionals, for example the most recent addition of the Diagnostic Statistical manual of mental disorders states that few sensory signs occur in early Alzheimer’s disease2. Therefore we still have a limited understanding of the true extent to which visual impairments affects Alzheimer’s disease. The current web site of the Alzheimer’s association1 and National Institute of Aging4 make no mention of the topic of sensory changes in Alzheimer’s disease. It has even been said that patients with Alzheimer’s disease report visual problems to their healthcare professionals less frequently than do healthy elderly individuals5. Nevertheless visual function is impaired in Alzheimer’s disease6. In terms of cognitive changes, the neuropathology of this disorder affects several other brain areas which are dedicated to processing low level visual functions as well as higher level visual cognition and attention11. These neuropathological cognitive changes are more dominant however in the visual variant of Alzheimer’s disease known as posterior cortical atrophy, however visual problems are also present in the more common Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimer’s disease begins when there are deposits of abnormal proteins outside nerve cells located in the brain in the form of amyloid. These are known as diffuse plaques, and the amyloid also forms the central part of further structured plaques known as senile or neurotic plaques3. Buildup of anomalous filaments of protein inside nerve cells in the brain can also take place. This protein accumulates as masses of filaments known as neurofibril tangles. Atrophy of the affected areas of the brain can also occur as well as the enlargement of the ventricles3. There is also a loss of the neuro transmitter Serotonin, Acetylcholine, Norepinephrine and Somatostatin. Attempts have been made to try to slow the development of the disease by replacing the neurotransmitters with cholinesterase inhibitors, such as donepezil (Aricept), rivastigmine (excelon), galantamine (Reminyl) and memantine (Namenda)3. These drugs work by increasing the levels of transmitters between cells, which otherw ise become lacking in Alzheimer’s disease. The National Institute for Clinical Excellence NICE conducted a review of these drugs in March 2005 and concluded that none of these drugs provided sufficient enough advantages to the patient in order to justify their cost. They recommended against the use of such drugs in the Nhs, though the Department of Health later overturned this ruling. Visual Changes in Alzheimer’s Patients Loss of vision is a key healthcare dilemma amongst the elderly. By the age of 65 approximately one in three people have a vision reducing eye disease. Dementia, Alzheimer’s disease patients and elderly patients, consequently have many visual conditions in common. Alzheimer’s disease impairs visual; function early in the course of the disease and functional losses correlate with cognitive losses. There are several common visual functional deficits that are frequently identified in Alzheimer’s disease. There is evidence for deficits in Motion perception32,33 contrast sensitivity31 colour discrimination of blue short wavelength hues34 and performance on backward masking tests31 In Alzheimer’s disease the secondary point of damage is usually the visual association cortex and other higher cortical areas as well as the primary visual cortex 35,36. Some of the main changes that occur in the eye with aging inlclude7: The crystalline lens increases in thickness, therefore decreasing its transparency and elasticity; therefore there is a tendency for cataracts to appear. The conjunctiva can become thicker and wrinkled, therefore is subject to deposits such as pinguecela. The iris can atrophy, therefore pupils become constricted and their response to light becomes sluggish. The eyes ability to dark/light adapt is affected. Refractive index of the cornea decreases and it becomes less transparent. Arcus senilis can appear. The ocular globe and eyelids can shrink leading to conditions such as entropian, ectropian and trichiasis. Also while the lachrymal production is reduced the puncta lachrymalis can become stenosed and provide less drainage which gives rise to chronic watering of the eyes Anterior chamber usually becomes more shallow and the sclera more rigid, increasing the prospects of glaucoma. These changes summed together not only diminish the quality of vision, but many of them also make the examination of the eye much more complicated. In conjunction with the general visual symptoms of aging, Alzheimer’s patients can also experience visual disturbances caused by the brain rather than the visual system alone. This means that they can have problems and difficulties perceiving what they see rather than how clearly they see it3. Difficulties are usually experienced in the areas mentioned earlier, namely depth, motion, color, and contrast sensitivity. Visual hallucinations are also a common problem with linked to loss of vision in Alzheimer’s disease patients38. Another common disorder linked to patients with Alzheimer’s disease is a variant of motion blindness. The patient can appear to be confused and lost; the individual will see the world as a series of still frames8. Visual changes in Alzheimer’s disease may also be dependent upon which brain hemisphere is more severely damaged; this factor can often be overlooked. An individual with Alzheimer’s disease could have damage to a greater extent on their left brain hemisphere from plaques and tangles. This would therefore cause subsequent retinal changes in only the left hemi-retinas of each eye i.e. the right visual fields. The right eye visual field would be affected in the temporal side (right) and the left eye visual field would be affected nasally (right)51. When only half the retina is impacted, smaller regions of the optic nerve and nerve fiber layer show losses. The left eye with affected temporal retina would show optic nerve damage in differing regions of the nerve than the right eye with nasal retinal damage.51 Alzheimers patients commonly show selective degeneration of large ganglion cell axons located in the optic nerves. This suggests that there would be impairment of broadband channel visual function. Conversely studies have shown that broadband visual capabilities are not selectively impaired in Alzheimer’s disease. The magnocellular and parvocellular neurons are greatly affected in Alzheimer’s patients, this has been proved by studies of the dorsal Lateral geniculate nucleus(LGN)3. The geniculostirate projection system is split both functionally and anatomically into two sections. They include the parvocellular layers of the Lateral geniculate body and also incorporates the magnocellular layers. These systems are mainly divided in the primary visual cortex and go through further segregation in the visual association cortex. They conclude in the temporal and paritetal lobes3. The parvocellular layers contain smaller, centrally located receptive fields that account for high spatial frequencies (acuity), they also respond well to color. On the other hand these cells do not respond well rapid motion or high flicker rates. The magnocellular cells have larger receptive fields and respond superiorly to motion and flicker. They are however comparatively insensitive to color differences, the magnocellular neurons generally show poor spatial resolution, although the seem to respond better at low luminance contrasts. To summarize the parvocellular system is superior at detecting small, slow moving, colored targets placed in the centre of the visual field. Meanwhile the magnocellular system has the ability to process rapidly moving and optically degraded stimuli across larger areas of the visual field3. The parvocellular system projects ventrally to the inferior temporal areas, which are involved in visual research, pattern recognition and visual object memory. The magnocellular system projects dorsally to the posterior parietal and superior temporal areas. These are specialized for motion information processing. The cerebral cortical areas to which the parvocelluar system projects receives virtually no vestibular afferents. Alternatively the cerebral areas to which the magnocelullar system projects receives significant vestibular and other sensory inputs. These are believed to be involved in maintaining spatial orientation. Research shows shows that the magnocellular system is more involved in Alzheimer’s disease3. Oddly, many individuals experience difficulties at low spatial frequencies instead of high frequencies as in old age. This suggests that areas controlling the low spatial frequency processing in the primary visual cortex would be affected more than those for higher frequencies processing39 After neuropathilogical studies in 1997 by Hof et al were carried out on brains with visual impairments they concluded that cortical atrophy dominated on the posterior parietal cortex and occipital lobe40 Glaucoma is also a neurodegenerative disease that has similar effects on the visual system. Lower spatial frequencies in the contrast sensitivity, deficits in the blue short wavelength color range as well as reductions in motion perception are all linked to glaucomatous patients16. When patients diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease also have glaucoma, the deterioration of vision related to glaucoma is much more rapid and progression is more aggressive than in people with glaucoma solely and not Alzheimer’s disease as well.19 Glaucoma is different from Alzheimer’s disease in that it affects the visual function at the early sites of neural activity, namely, the retinal ganglion cells. Glaucoma destroys the afferent axons at the nerve fiber layer in the retina. This loss of axons ultimately leads to added atrophy further up the visual pathway due to decreased neuronal input. Alternatively Alzheimer’s disease impacts the cells that are located terminally or intermediary in the visual pathway of the brain. The result is again reduced neuronal input due to loss of nerve fibre connections and atrophy along the visual pathway. When the two diseases exist in the same individual together it can be seen that there is likely to be a greater disruption to the visual system20, one key difference between the two diseases is that they affect the visual pathway at different points. Glaucoma is a degenerative disease starting at the beginning of the visual pathway, whereas Alzheimer’s disease is a deg enerative process starting relatively late in the visual pathway. When the two diseases coexist then the neuronal and functional losses of vision are cumulative. Optometric examination of dementia patients Dementia patients present special problems for optometrists. A standard eye test can be an audile to even the best of us. The patient is placed in an unfamiliar environment surrounded by unusual equipment, machinery and is subjected to probing questions about he medical history which will inevitably tax their already flawed memory. Dementia patients are most likely to be from the elderly. Therefore several difficulties are presented while conducting an ocular examination. The patient is required to maintain a position and has to maintain concentration throughout the testing procedures, which can be very difficult. Subjective examination requires responses from the patient, they are expected to remember and follow complex instructions given to them by the optometrist as well as make many precise discriminatory judgments in a short space of time. The multiple tasks required to be completed during the examination are often beyond dementia patients as they are limited by the disease. The refore it is common that patients with even a minor degree of dementia fail to provide valid answers, provide unpredictable responses to the subjective examination and retreat into an apathetic state3,9. During the visual examination of Alzheimer’s disease patients, several key visual problems can be detected. Moderate dementia patients will often experience problems such as topographic agnosia, alexia without agraphia, visual agnosia and prospagnosia3. Such patients often cannot describe individual components of photos and routinely fail to recognize family members. The degree to which such problems are experienced is consistent with the level of cytochrome oxidase deficits in the associated cortical area. In conjunction with these problems dementia patients often have problems with texture discrimination and blue violet discrimination3. During examination of the elderly dementia patients there are two contradictory requirements, firstly is ‘assurance’. The patient’s responses will be delayed and the patient may feel anxious in such an unfamiliar situation, therefore constant reassurance is required and they cannot be rushed. Alternatively time constraints are important, a dementia/elderly patient is likely to have a short attention span. Therefore the two factors above much be considered and balanced. The examination must be thorough yet carried out as quick as possible. Often when examining a dementia patient a family member of the carer must be present in order to aid the communication between optometrist and patient, for example difficulties are likely to occur when recording history and symptoms without a carer present. All factors need to be considered such as family history, medication, eye treatment and knowledge of any medical conditions and if so how long they have suffered from them. In terms of an external examination firstly, gross observations should be recorded for example does the patient have an abnormal head position or is there any lid tosis. Many external observations can also be detected with the aid of pupil reflexes. Upon carrying out the external examination the optometrist must be carful to explain exactly what each procedure will involve so as not to intimidate the patient. Internal examination Internal examination of an elderly patient often presents many problems. Older patients tend to have constricted pupils and often opacities in the media such as cataract. Patients with dementia also show poor fixation as well as lack of concentration. Pupil dilation is often used to aid external examination however many older patients can have a poor response to the insertion of mydriatic eye drops. There have been many studies into the affects of diagnostic mydriatic and miotic drugs. Many studies have shown excessive mydriatic pupil response to trompicamide (a pupil dilating drug) in patients with Alzheimer’s disease when compared to control individuals.))) on the other hand studies into the use of Miotic drops, particularly Pilocarpine have shown an increased response of pupil constriction in Alzheimer’s disease patients in comparison to normal control patients. These findings suggest a defect in pupillary innervation with Alzheimer’s disease individuals. Studies of post mortem individuals with exaggerated mydriatic pupil responses to Tropicamide found a definte disruption to the Edinger-Westphal nucleus. The Edinger-Westphal nucleus is one of the key structures of the brain involved in the autonomic nervous system, it mediates the sympathetic and para-sympathetic pupil responses. Research by Scinto et al found amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in all individuals tested with excessive mydriatic pupil responses. The conclusion was that the Edinger-Westphal nucleus is targeted early in the progression of Alzheimer’s disease. In terms of intraocular pressures use of the goldman an Perkins tonometers will be limited for the elderly dementia patients, due to health an safety reasons. Sudden movements whilst carrying out pressure tests on such equipment may be dangerous. Therefore this can be overcome to a degree by the use of handheld instruments such as the pulseair. However even with the pulseair problems can still be faces with uncooperative patients. Objective examination With uncooperative and awkward patients objective refraction through retinosopy may be difficult. Factors such as opacified media, miotic pupils, and poor fixation will influence the accuracy of the refraction. The recent introduction of hand held optometers has contributed to somewhat overcoming such problems. Instruments such as thee Nikon Retinomax are excellent for obtaining an objective refraction of the elderly patient with miotic pupils and cloudy media. When presenting the Snellen chart to a patient, the quality of their response will inevitably depend upon the degree of their dementia. Depending on which stage of dementia they are suffering from, responses could range from routine reading of the chart to no response at all. The later presents the optometrist with greater problems; however a visual acuity can still be measured via other techniques. Treatment of Alzheimer’s disease Alzheimer’s disease is often widespread and a prevalent problem, however it is often an untreated disorder. A reason for this impairment to be overlooked could be that visual function is typically only measured in terms of visual acuity in the majority of cases, which in Alzheimer’s patients is often normal. However, studies have shown that up to 60% of people with Alzheimer’s disease show deficits in on or multiple visual areas such as depth perception, motion perception, color discrimination or contrast sensitivity31, 32. Therefore detection and treatment of Alzheimer’s patients must include these other visual capacities and not only visual acuity tests. Deficits in depth perception have accurately been demonstrated in Alzheimer’s individuals33-37. Decline in this visual capacity is even seen at the early stages of Alzheimer’s disease, independently of the other visual capacities36. Impaired depth perception will inevitably cause problems in performing everyday tasks33,36 eg walking, cleaning and stair climbing. Motion perception is also a common deficit seen in Alzheimer’s disease41-45. Studies have shown that individuals with Alzheimer’s take significantly longer to identify stationary objects that can be identified by motion cues41,43. A study by Rizzo et al42 found that 33% of Alzheimer’s patients had car accidents when put through a set of driving scenarios in a virtual simulator, compared to 0 accidents with non demented age match participants. The decreased ability of Alzheimer’s patients to accurately process visual motion cues was a significant factor in avoiding accidents. Contrast sensitivity can be defined as the smallest difference in intensity that a person can resolve between an object and its immediate surround. Most elderly patients are impaired at high spatial frequencies. However Alzheimer’s sufferers are impaired at low spatial frequencies as well46,47,48,49-51. Problems with contrast sensitivity will have a subsequent impact on how a person with Alzheimer’s disease perceives their environment, and will adversely affect their ability to perform many everyday tasks such as dressing, washing and eating to name but a few. Contrast sensitivity problems cannot be cured or overcome by means such as optical correction through spectacles, medication or surgery. However individuals can be helped by environmental modifications. We will now go on to discuss a handful of simple environmental modifications that can be made for dementia patients in order to increase their quality of life. Firstly there are several key simple principles relating to colour and light that should always be considered when modifying a living area for a dementia individual. Color Light Use sharply contrasting color between back ground and foreground. Always have even distribution of light within a room. Use solid colors rather than stripes or multi color patterns. Good to have as much natural light as possible. Do not use ‘like’ colors next to each other Minimise glare Task lighting when applicable Place light behind reading or television chair to enhance vision. In the bedroom the main point of concern is not to bump into objects and not to fall out of bed. Caregivers can also find it problematic to get the patient into their bedroom at the end of the day. Enhancing the contrast of objects in the bedroom will help patients to recognize areas of their room and intern make care givers jobs much easier during care. In order to draw the patient into a room in a common technique many institutions or caregivers use is to paint the furthest most wall in the bedroom in a contrasting color to the rest of the room, for example in a light colored room (magnolia) it would be advantageous to paint the far wall in a dark contrasting color such as brown. This will provide a depth cue for the patient and will encourage them to enter the bedroom. Once in the room dementia patients can often have problems locating the bed. Again this problem can be aided by a simple modification of using a bed spread that is of high contrast when compared to the surrounding w alls and floor of the room. This simple modification will draw the patient towards the bed and help prevent them from tripping or stumbling over the bed. Other simple tips can be to modify appliances within the bedroom such as telephones, clocks and radios with different colored buttons to encourage independence. The bathroom is another frequently used area within the household and there are many simple modifications that can be made within this area to aid the user. Firstly placing a fixed bath mat of the same color as the floor is a simple useful modification. The matt with low contrast to the floor will decrease any depth perception problems and will aid the user when getting in and out of the bath tub. Also a fixed mat can be placed inside the bath tub, however in this case the matt should be of a contrasting color to the tub. The reasoning behind this is that the contrasting bath mat will provide a excellent depth cue for the user who would other wise would be unsure to about how deep the floor of the bath tub is. The bathroom can be a hazardous place for a dementia individual as there are many risks within this room especially the risk of hot water. Therefore an extremely important modification in the bathroom is to ensure all taps have different colored knobs on the hot and cold compon ents. The colored taps will provide a color cue and help the user to distinguish between the two. The kitchen can be a dangerous place, especially for the elderly and dementia su

The Rise And Development Of American Novel English Literature Essay

The Rise And Development Of American Novel English Literature Essay When we speak about American Literature, we are speaking about written works that were produced in America geographically or politically. Apart from English writers the American writers also proved their worth in creating literature such as is able to be recognized as one the best masterpieces of the English works. The genre of novel gave the novelists a medium to speak freely to the world seeking comfort and knowledge contrasted to the other genres of literature in which apart from creativity a writer has to seek many other techniques of writing which sometimes hurdle the writer to express his or her true meaning. The category is as wide as poetry: novels are long prose fictions, including every kind of Plot (tragic, comic), all styles and manners of dealing with their material (from the satiric to rhapsodic) and showing a capacity to cover every imaginative subject matter from all points of view. They range from the popular Thriller to the most esoteric literary artifice. The capacity of the form to absorb other literary styles, its freedom to develop in any direction and its flexibility, have made the novel the major modern literary form.(Gray, 198). There are many reasons which show the absence of cultural voices in the early American novel. First of all there was no authentic American language or medium of expression avaiable for literary purpose. Americans were in a process to coin new style of language that could be considered as the American language distinguished from the English style or Englsih writing style. There was also lack of cultural support for the Americans to create new ideas or creative efforts. America due to the impact of colonialism was not in a strong position to depict its utmost culture in its works of literature. American culture tended to be parochial and generally distrustful of any written expression that was not didactic. For example, clergy such as Janathan Edwards taught that reading novels was an indulgence leading to moral decline. Due to an unstable society, there could be no stable American genre of the novel. Cathy Davidson and others have argued that some novels tried to attain an ideological status (Revolution and the Word, 1986) which is a critique of the existing order, and that the more popular the genre became, the more those vested with cultural authority worried over their loss of dominance. This was especially true because novels, unlike sermons, required no intermediaries for interpretation. The early American novel, as a genre, tended to proclaim a society egalitarian message. It spoke forà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦orphans, beggar girls, factory girls, or other unfortunates, and it repeatedly advocated the general need for female education'. (Davidson,73). The genre of novel can be classified as sentimental, picaresque, gothic and the novels of nostalgia or reclamation which unifies the spirit of the nation for example James Fenimore Coopers novel The Spy (1821). Sentimental novel or novel of sensibility reflects the sentimentalism of the 18th century which is reflected in sentimental comedy and domestic tragedy. The term Sentimentalism bears two meanings, first the overindulgence in emotion especially for the pleasure that this feeling provides, secondly the optimistic overemphasis on the goodness of humanity (sensibility), signifying in part a reaction against Calvinism, which regarded human nature as depraved. Pamela was the beginning of the style; although Fieldings more realistic Tom Jones was written in protest. There are also examples of 18th century sentimental novel: Oliver Goldsmiths The Vicar of Wakefield (1766), Henry Mackenzies The Man of Feeling (1771), Laurence Sternes Tristram Shandy (1760-67). Sensibility is a term for reliance on feelings as guides to the truth and not on reasoning and law. The term is concerned with primitivism, sentimentalism, the nature movement, and other aspects of romanticism. The high value that the e ighteenth century put on sensibility was a feedback against the stoicism of the 17th century and the theories progressed by Hobbes and others that human beings were inspired primarily by self-interest. Picaresque began in sixteenth century as a counterpoise to the chivalric romance. It includes a gallery of human types drawn from all societal classes. It sorts lower class protagonists who survive by treachery and malleability. Hero is both a swindler and a victim. It also features a encounter between the heros craving to survive and his natural itches to side with truth and goodness. Picaresque novel uses subsidiary characters, like Sancho Panza, who assist the hero. This genre also emphasizes liberty and emission from limits of conservative society and lastly it also features panoramic scenes. The purpose of this genre is that it contains different types of discourse: philosophical reflection, travel essay, political disquisition, it also parodies other traditional literary forms, such as poetry and the romance. It is also suitable for observation on politics of republicanism. Its dimness is its uneven point of views-not a problem in Huck Finn, though. Hugh Henry Brackenridges Mod ern Chivalry (1792-1815), Tabitha Gilman Tenneys Female Quixotism: Exhibited in the Romantic Opinion and Extravagant Adventures of Dorcasina Sheldon (1801), Charlotte Lennoxs The Female Quixote (1752), and Royall Tylers The Algerine Captive (1797) are a few examples of picaresque novels. The conventions of Gothic are mad monks, castles, ruined abbeys-and also superstitions and delusion, hidden corruption and human anxieties, mazelike pathways, haunted minds masked by apparently normal outward lives. Gothic conventions became a form for expressing fears of the conflicting claims of authority and liberty in American society-self-made, self-improved, self-confident men abusing power or undermining the social order. Charles Brockden Browns Wieland (1798), Ormond (1789), and Edgar Huntly (1799) are the examples of Gothic genre. So far as American literature is concerned Captain John Smith is considered to be the first American author due to his work: A True Relation of Such Occurrences and Accidents of Noate as Hath Happened in Virginiaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦(1608). This kinds of works are known as the colonial literature. Smiths other works are The Generall Historie of Virginia, New England, and the Summer Isles (1624). Other colonial writers of this manner are Daniel Denton, Thomas Ashe, William Penn, George Percy, William Strachey, Daniel Coxe, Gabriel Thomas, and John Lawson. During 18th century the focus of all the phenomena were shifted from religion to the reasoning with the advent of era of science and inventions. All the happenings were observed with the laws of Physics as were given by Sir Isaac Newton and thus religion and the rules of clergy were demolished. There happened a great shift from the Holy Scriptures towards the human reasoning as to say. This era is known as the Enlightenment of 18th century which strongly impacted the authority of churchmen hence making the way for democratic principles. There also increase in population in the British colonies which helped account for the greater diversity of opinion in religion as well as political life which is seen in the literature of this time. The American post-independence era gave rise to many pieces of writing concerning American State, comprising notes on the State of Virginia by Thomas Jefferson and his many letters solidify his place as one of the most trained early American writers. So far as the first American novels are concerned, they were first published during late 18th and early 19th century. These works of fiction were too lengthy to be printed for pubic reading, but the publishers took the chance to public having hope that they would become steady sellers and hence need to be printed. Among the first American novels are Thomas Attwood Digges Adventures of Alonso, which was published in London in 1775, and William Hill Browns The Power of Sympathy published in 1791. Browns novel shows a tragic love story between siblings who fell in love without knowing that they were related. This epistolary novel is related to the Sentimental novel tradition. During the next decade many novels were published which were written by many female writers. Susanna Rowso is known very well for her novel, Charlotte Temple, which is a tale of seduction and written in third person warning against listening to the voice of passionate love and counsels resistance as well. Another female novelist, Hannah Forster wrote The Coquette: Or, the History of Eliza Wharton which was published in 1797 and it was also an extremely popular novel. This being told from Hannah Forsters point of view and secondly based on the life of Eliza Whitman, this another epistolary novel is concerned with a woman who is seduced and abandoned. Eliza is a coquette who is courted by two very very different men: a clergyman who is offering her the comfort and regularity of domestic life, and a noted and specified libertine. Both novels that is The Coquette and Charlotte are considered to be those novel which speak about the rights of women. In this way these novels can be rendered as the Feminist novels or works of American literature. These novels are also known as the democratic ones as they speak of equal rights of women. The novels are classified under the term as sentimental novels or sentimental genre, characterised by over indulgence in emotion. They are an open invitation to listen to the voice of reasoning against misleading passions and they are also an optimistic over-emphasis about the necessary goodness of humanity. Although these novels were very popular, yet the economic infrastructure of that time did not allow these writers to make their ways living easier. It was in 1809 when an American author, Washington Irving, was able to publish his work entitled A History of New-York from Beginning of the World to the End of the Dutch Dynasty and he became able to support himself from the income generated by his publications. Charles Brockden Brown is another American novelist who published Wieland in 1798, Ormond in 1799 and Edgar Huntlyin in 1799 which were of the Gothic genre. Hugh Henry Brackenridge published Modern Chivalry in 1792 which was of the picaresque genre. Tabitha Gilman Tenney wrote Female Quixotism, Charlotte Lennox wrote The Female Quixote in 1752. Royall Tyler, William Gillmore Simms, Lydia Maria Child, John Neal and Catherine Maira are the porminent figures of American novelists. Puritanism 17th Century: Puritanism is a movement created by extreme Calvinist Protestants who sought to purify religion and society. They believed God would cleanse their feelings through grace eliminating envy, vanity, and lust. Puritans valued plainness in all things including their writing. Of Plymouth Plantation by William Bradford, and speech Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God by Jonathan Edwards Classicism/ The Age of Reason 18th Century: The Age of Enlightenment, or Age of Reason, is an intellectual movement which began in Europe. Writers during this time believed the goals of rational individuals were knowledge, freedom, and happiness. The literary movement which coincided with the Age of Reason was Classicism, based on the study of and adherence to the ancient classic works of Greece and Rome. Classicists valued clarity, order, balance, and reason instead of imagination. They believed nature was like a machine with fixed, unchanging laws. The following works are examples: Poor Richards Almanack -Benjamin Franklin Speech in the Virginia Convention Patrick Henry The Crisis, Number 1 Thomas Paine The Declaration of Independence Thomas Jefferson To the Right Honorable William, Earl of Dartmouth Phillis Wheatly Nationalism in Literature Late 18th Century to Early 19th Century: Nationalism developed from pride, patriotism, and the desire to be distinctly different from the Europeans. American writers tried to write stories and poems unlike European Romantic writers, but they largely failed in their efforts. Rip Van Winkle by Washington Irving and The Deerslayer James Fennimore Cooper Romanticism 19th Century: Romanticism is the movement that rebelled against Classicism in favor of the imagination and emotions. Romantic writers favored intuition over reason and were more concerned with the individual than the whole society. They saw art as an imaginative expression of an individuals essence. Romantics viewed nature as a beautiful mystery, and source of moral and spiritual lessons, not a machine. Many American Romantic writers were also Nationalists who used American history and legends as their subject matter. Rip Van Winkle Washington Irving, The Deerslayer by James Fennimore Cooper, Masque of the Red Death and The Raven by Edgar Allan Poe, Walden by Henry David Thoreau, and Young Goodman Brown by Nathaniel Hawthorne are the exemplary wroks. American Renaissance/ New England Renaissance Mid 19th Century: The American Renaissance is a flourishing of literature dominated by two groups: the Brahmins (based in Cambridge, Massachusetts) and the Transcendentalists (based primarily in Concord, Massachusetts). The Brahmins/Fireside Poets were Longfellow, Lowell, Whittier, and Holmes, Harvard professors who promoted a second attempt at creating a literature which, though based on European models, is distinctly American in character. The Transcendentalists, led by Emerson, were philosophers, social reformers, and writers. The Southerner Poe as well as the Anti-Transcendentalists, Hawthorne and Melville (more Massachusetts residents) are also frequently associated with this movement. Paul Reveres Ride by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Old Ironsides by Oliver Wendell Holmes, Self-Reliance by Ralph Waldo Emerson, Walden or Life in the Woods by Henry David Thoreau and Young Goodman Brown by Nathaniel Hawthorne are a few works. Transcendentalism 19th Century: American Transcendentalism was created by Emerson who borrowed his ideas from German Transcendentalism and Indian religion to develop a new philosophy. Transcendentalists believe that the basic truths of the universe transcend the physical world and lie beyond the knowledge that can be obtained from the senses. They feel that every individual has the ability to experience God firsthand in his/her intuition. They value nature and believe in the spiritual unity of all life, stating God, humanity, and nature share a universal soul. They feel that nothing in nature is trivial or insignificant; all is symbolic and important. They also promoted the belief that every human being is born inherently good. Self Reliance by Ralph Waldo Emerson, Walden by Henry David Thoreau and Woman in the Nineteenth Century by Margaret Fuller are prominent works. Anti-Transcendentalism 19th Century: Anti-Transcendentalism (like Transcendentalism) is a subsection of Romanticism. Hawthorne and Melville were far less optimistic than Emerson and his fellow philosophers. The Anti-Transcendentalists believed good and evil coexist in the world and that intuition could lead a person to evil just as easily as it could lead to good. The Scarlett Letter, The Birthmark, The Minsters Black Veil by Nathaniel Hawthorne and Moby Dick by Herman Melville are few examples. Local Color and Regionalism Late 19th Century to Early 20th Century: Local color writers identify with a particular place or region of the country. They emphasized distinctive and colorful regional traits (speech patterns and dialects, local customs and folkways, character types, etc.). These writers promoted the objective observation of social facts as well as the sentimental treatment of human emotion and motivation.The White Heron by Sarah Orne Jewett and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain are the major works. Realism Late 19th Century to Early 20th Century: Realism, unlike Romanticism, places less emphasis on the imagination and more on observed fact. These writers viewed the world and human behavior scientifically, mirroring realities without softening or idealizing them. This movement is often considered a rebellion against Romanticism. The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain and My Antonia by Willa Cather show realism. Naturalism Late 19th Century to Early 20th Century: Naturalism was a significant offshoot of Realism. Many American authors were influenced by this movement. Naturalism demands that writers penetrate the surface of life and human character. It focuses on inherited traits and environmental conditions (nature and nurture). Naturalism usually explores the negative aspects of society. These authors did not judge their characters morality, but rather viewed them through a social Darwinist lens. Naturalists believed that chance exists but free will is rarely possible. The Red Badge of Courage by Stephen Crane and Of Mice and Men and The Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck are few examples of this era. Modernism First half of the 20th Century: Modernism is a self-conscious break from traditional literary forms and subject matter and a search for a distinctly contemporary mode of expression. It was heavily influenced by the horrors and disillusionment of World War One. These writers are also referred to as The Lost Generation. Their writing reflects isolation, alienation, and fragmentation. It places emphasis on individual perception, sensibility, and human consciousness. The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald, The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber by Ernest Hemingway and The Crucible by Arthur Miller are the exemplary works. Imagism Early 20th Century: Imagism is a subsection of Modernism that attempted to free poetry from stale conventions and florid language. It emphasized direct concentration on the precise image, the use of precise words and the language of common speech, new rhythms and the use of free verse, as well as complete freedom in the choice of subject.This is Just to Say and The Red Wheelbarrow by William Carlos Williams,The Garden by Ezra Pound and Heat by H. D. (Hilda Doolittle) are the best examples of imagism. Harlem Renaissance Primarily the 1920s: The Harlem Renaissance, also called the New Negro Movement, is a period of outstanding creativity among African American writers. Many of these works were sophisticated explorations of black life and culture that revealed and stimulated a new confidence and racial pride. The following are a few works of literature. The Invisible Man Ralph Ellison Lift Every voice and Sing James Weldon Johnson Their Eyes Were Watching God Zora Neale Jurston Harlem: A Dream Deferred Langston Hughes Southern Renaissance 1930s and 40s: The Southern Renaissance is heavily influenced by traditional Southern humor (stories, sketches, tall tales, and folklore) as well as by the Local Color movement. This time period marked a sudden explosion of excellent Southern writers who emphasized regional speech patterns and dialects, local customs and folkways, as well as character types. The following are a few works of literature. A Worn Path Eudora Welty The Sound and the Fury William Faulkner All the Kings Men Robert Penn Warren Beat Movement The 1950s: Centered in the bohemian or beatnik urban artists communities, the Beat movement defines itself in its alienation from the conventional and its adaptation of the seedy and hip, embracing jazz music, drugs, sex, and Buddhism. The following are a few works of literature. Howl Allen Ginsberg On the Road Jack Kerouac Pluralism 20th century: Pluralism is a movement defined by diversity. During the 20th century American literature was no longer predominantly male, white, and Christian. Men and women of many cultures, races, religions, and ethnic groups began to be published. Many of these authors chose to use the first person point of view rather than the, previously popular, their person. Various voices shared their stories while addressing universal themes. The following are a few works of literature. The Bell Jar Silvia Plath The color Purple Alice Walker The Lone Ranger and Tonto Fistfight in Heaven Sherman Alexie Magical Realism The Second half of the 20th Century: Magical Realism was created in Latin America but it has influenced many writers of the United States as well. This movement juxtaposes the ordinary and the magical, incorporating fantastic elements into otherwise realistic fiction. The following are a few works of literature. Like Water for Chocolate Laura Esquival Beloved and Song of Soloman Toni Morrison Going After Cacciato Tim OBrien The Lovely Bones Alice Sebold Post Modernism The Second half of the 20th Century: Postmodernists believe that there is no single truth, but rather a variety of perspectives none of which is better or worse than another. This movement neither embraces nor resists the conventional. It accepts everything equally. Postmodern works are often eclectic, and anachronistic. Postmodernists make no distinction between high art and popular culture, can blur the boundary between fiction and nonfiction, and often sample other artists work freelyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦(very freely). The following are a few works of literature. The Simpsons Matt Groening Fear and Loathing In Las Vegas Hunter S. Thompson Snow Falling on Cedar David Guterson Breakfast of Champions Kurt Vounnegut Whos Afraid of Virginia Woolf Edward Albee The Secret Life of Bees Sue Munk Kidd